The Peasants’ Ikkis and the Shugonal System in the Early Modern Japan
ZHENG Pichu
In the early modern Japan, peasants struggled against the Shogunate by means of Ikkis due to increased annual tribute, unlawful servitude, restrictions on the free circulation of goods and famine caused by natural disasters. In the process of launching Ikkis, the peasants mobilized by contacting the neighboring villages and coercion, and fought against the Shogunate in the form of “fleeing”, “tranpass appealing” and “forcible lawsuit”. In the face of the peasants’ ikkis, the Shogunate used the stick and the carrot, responded by issuing injunctions, strengthening local security, armed suppression and so on. The constant occurrence of Ikkis prevented the Shogunate from economy plunder and resulted in the long-term financial crisis. In the process of dealing with Ikkis, the Shogunate strengthened its dominant position as the “superior state”, and contributed to the long-term peace of Japan in modern times. The peasants’ Ikkis had a dual function of disintegrating and continuing the Shogunate system, which realized the coexistence of the folk order and dominant order.
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The Catiline Conspiracy and the Factional Struggles in the Late Roman Republic
YANG Junming and KUANG Linlin
At the end of the Roman Republic (66-62 B.C.), the frustrated aristocrats led by Catiline took a series of conspiracies to seize the supreme rule of the Roman state, which is known as the Catiline Conspiracy in history. The emergency of the Conspiracy was the inevitable result of the intensification of social contradictions and out of control of social order in Rome at that time, it was also inseparable from the factional struggles between populares and optimates. Although the Catiline Conspiracy ended in failure, it precipitated the rise of Cicero, “the Father of the Republic”; led to the Triumvirate of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, and also accelerated the disintegration of the Roman republican system and the formation of the Empire.
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“Real Wealth” and “General Opulence”: A Case Study of Adam Smith’s View of Wealth
YANG Fang
Adam Smith’s political economy had always been about wealth and opulence. He regarded the annual produce of land and labour in a country as “real wealth”, and took general opulence that benefited every member as a sign of social progress. In order to make a theoretical preparation for advocating “the system of natural liberty” and revealing the market principle of “the invisible hand”, he launched a thorough criticism of mercantilism and a rational sublation of physiocratism, and explored the inner relationship between thrift, luxury and general opulence. Tracing Adam Smith’s view of wealth is of great significance to understand the pioneering contribution of Scottish Enlightenment thinkers in bringing economics into the field of political science.
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A New Understanding of Nithard’s Histories
A.D. 830-843 was an extremely important period in the historical process of Carolingian Dynasty. During this period, the monarchs had rivalries between father and son, and even internal disputes, which resulted in frequently wars and the empire was divided into three parts. Nithard, a witness of those events, wrote the Histories recorded in detail the turbulence and changes of Frankish society at that time. It was a precious document of great historical value. For a long time, the interpretation, understandings and the evaluations about the Histories in the international academic circles have been continuously advanced and deepened, which achieve great success. The Chinese academic circle should pay necessary attention and closely track the frontier trends of them, so as to enrich and deepen the understanding of the historical process and its landscape of the early Middle Ages in the Western Europe.
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On Nature of Jewish Kibbutz Organization
RAO Benzhong
Kibbutz is a Jewish collective settlement which appeared in Palestine in the early 20th century, and still exists in the state of Israel. It is often considered as a socialist organization because of its systems of public ownership of property, joint labor and distribution according to needs. In fact, the presentation of Kibbutz is socialism, the essence of it is Zionism. The Kibbutz appears to be socialist, but in reality it is a Zionist organization led by the Zionist party. The initial aim of the Kibbutz was to create a Jewish national state in Palestine and to develop the state of Israel. Since the late 20th century, the socialist component of Kibbutz has been changed, but its Zionist nature has not been changed.
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A Study of the Quo Warranto Campaign in England in the 13th Century
LIU Lin
Magna Carta was famous for restricting kingship. Should aristocratic power be subject to the same constraints? In the second half of the 13th century, facing the aristocratic abuse of prerogatives, Edward I led the Quo Warranto Campaign for nearly 20 years in order to regulate the prerogative of the aristocracy; aristocrats used the right of resistance to safeguard their own interests. By analyzing the lawsuit documents of Edward I, we can see that the confrontation between the King and aristocrats was mainly carried out in the form of litigation under the common law system. Game and compromise between them run through the Quo Warranto Campaign. This process further defined and standardized the relationship of rights between the king and aristocrats, strengthened the check-and-balance system between them. The Quo Warranto Campaign highlighted the doctrine of supremacy of law, and promoted the legalization of political operation in England.
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The Process of Gaining the State’s Support of Improving Scottish Highland Fishery After 1785
CHU Shuda
Considering the local poverty and depopulation, Scotland decided to improve its Highland herring fishery. After 1785, the Scottish localities based on the Highland Society of London for activities, argued for the urgency and feasibility of the fishery improvement, transformed local demands into national issues through lobbying, and promoted the fisheries legislation. In the process of lobbying, the Scottish elites actively expounded the concept of common interests and provided the local information for Parliamentary decision-making. After the enactment of the legislation, the Scottish elites continued to play a leading role in implementing development proposals and seeking follow-up support from the state by relying on the newly founded British Fisheries Society. The transmission of local demands to the State Parliament embodied the British political mechanism of unobstructed communication and rational decision-making.
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Poverty Relief Activities of the Female Association of Philadelphia Before American Civil War
LU Diqiu
The Female Association of Philadelphia, which was founded in 1800, had always been committed to relieving female poverty and their children. Before the Civil War, the Association provided materials assistance and job opportunities for female poverty and children in a series of major events such as infectious disease, war, economic depression and immigration, so as to participate in public life. Under the condition that the society advocated the ideology of separate spheres, the Female Association of Philadelphia had proved the legitimacy of women’s public participation with practical actions. It expanded the space for women’s activity, made the women take more public responsibilities, and played an active role in the transformation of American society.
